Author Identifier (ORCID)
Abstract
Introduction: Whale and dolphin watching tourism continues to expand globally, generating substantial economic benefits for coastal communities. However, ensuring that tourism activities remain safe, sustainable, and do not adversely affect cetacean populations remains a significant management challenge. This study evaluated humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) distribution in relation to the intensity of commercial in-water interactions at the commencement of a tourism program off Ningaloo Marine Park (NMP), Western Australia.
Methods: Aerial surveys were conducted in 2016, 2017, and annually from 2022 to 2024 to assess humpback whale distribution and abundance, while vessel-based Electronic Monitoring System data were used to quantify commercial in-water interactions between 2016 and 2024. Availability-corrected estimates of whale abundance were calculated, and spatial point-pattern analyses were used to assess interannual differences in whale distribution. Generalised additive models were used to examine the influence of calf presence on the probability of whales occurring within the mother-calf protection zone.
Results: Availability-corrected estimates indicated that humpback whale abundance varied among years, with abundance increasing between 2022 and 2024. The number of whale groups increased from 440 in 2016 to 866 in 2024, while the proportion of groups containing calves differed significantly among years (χ2 = 68.88, df = 4, p < 0.001). Spatial analyses revealed no significant interannual differences in fine-scale whale distribution. Commercial in-water interactions increased from 596 in 2016 to 1,387 in 2019, declined to approximately 600 between 2020 and 2022, and subsequently increased to approximately 1,000 in both 2023 and 2024. Following the implementation of a mother-calf protection zone in 2016, humpback whale groups with calves were found to be more than eight times as likely to occur within the protection zone than groups without calves (β = 2.11 ± 0.11 SE, z = 20.08, p < 0.001; odds ratio = 8.27). The proportion of in-water interactions occurring within the protection zone increased from 68% in 2016 to 93% in 2024.
Discussion: Areas of concentrated in-water interactions represent potential hotspots of vessel and swimmer congestion that may increase pressure on humpback whales and elevate risks to visitor safety. These findings provide an evidence base to support adaptive management of commercial in-water humpback whale tourism, particularly for vulnerable mother-calf pairs, and contribute to strategies aimed at minimizing industry-related impacts while maintaining safe and sustainable tourism practices.
Keywords
abundance, best practice, hotspots, human-wildlife interactions, humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae), nature-based tourism, Ningaloo Marine Park, spatial density distribution
Document Type
Journal Article
Date of Publication
8-26-2026
Article Number
1868120
E-ISSN
2673611X
Volume
7
Publication Title
Frontiers in Conservation Science
Publisher
Frontiers
School
Centre for Marine Ecosystems Research
Funding Information
Humpback Whale Management Fund.
Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Recommended Citation
Tyne, J. A., Raudino, H., Irvine, L., Kent, C. S., & Waples, K. (2026). Informing the in-water humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) interaction management program in the Ningaloo Marine Park, Western Australia. Frontiers in Conservation Science, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcosc.2026.1868120