Author Identifier (ORCID)
Albert Stuart Reece: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3256-720X
Gary Kenneth Hulse: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7907-0233
Abstract
Atrial septal defect (ASD) has become increasingly common in the USA and now affects 1 in 11.3 children in some places, but space–time analysis has not been applied to this emerging trend. ASD rate (ASDR) data were obtained from the National Birth Defects Prevention Network 2003–2020. Substance (cigarettes, alcohol, cannabis, analgesics, cocaine) use data were obtained from the National Survey of Drug Use and Health. Income data were obtained from the US Census. Analysis was limited to the Non-Hispanic White population by technical factors. Time-sequential univariate and bivariate maps were prepared for both covariates and outcomes and their combinations. Spatial regression of the ASDR was performed using the R package splm. A total of 7.6% of data was interpolated by linear regression. A total of 110,107 ASD cases were identified amongst 17,751,437 live births in 27 US states across 10 reporting periods. Time series maps showed that ASDR showed concordant patterns with indices of cannabis use rather than other substances. This was confirmed by multivariate spatial regression where cannabis and cannabinoids alone were found to significantly relate to ASDR, with p = 0.00002 for cannabidiol. Cannabis legal status similarly tracked with ASDR. Compared to states where cannabis was not legal, ASDR was more prevalent in cannabis-legal states (OR = 2.73 (2.66, 2.80); E-Value 4.90 (lower C.I. 4.76)). Twenty-seven of 34 (79.4%) E-values were >9 (high range) and 34/34 were > 1.25 (causal threshold). Data show that cannabis, including cannabis legalization, is driving the US ASD epidemic. While most high-ASDR states have high rates of cannabis use, Midwestern states where cannabis is farmed, such as Kentucky, Tennessee and Missouri, do not, suggesting other routes of exposure, potentially implicating environmental contamination. ASD is a bellwether marker for cannabinoid teratogenicity, indicating that communities should carefully control cannabinoid exposure and limit transgenerational cannabinoid genotoxicity more generally.
Keywords
Cannabis, cardiogenesis, epigenotoxicity, genotoxicity, transgenerational inheritance
Document Type
Journal Article
Date of Publication
4-1-2026
Volume
16
Issue
2
Publication Title
Journal of Xenobiotics
Publisher
MDPI
School
School of Medical and Health Sciences
Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Comments
Reece, A. S., & Hulse, G. K. (2026). Space-time analysis of burgeoning US atrial septal defect rates driven by cannabis. Journal of Xenobiotics, 16(2), 68. https://doi.org/10.3390/jox16020068