Abstract
Joint ‘flexibility’ is an encompassing term influenced by both a joint’s maximum range of motion (ROMmax) and its resistance to rotation, i.e. its stiffness. A critical amount of flexibility is thought to be important for both sports performance and daily and occupational tasks. Improvements in joint ROMmax, specifically, are often assumed to result from material and mechanical changes in the joint’s soft tissue structures; however, they also may result from changes in sensory information relayed from peripheral receptors to the brain, or the interpretation of that information. Changes in psychological state mediated by pain, state arousal and other psychological factors can therefore influence the voluntary capacity of individuals to tolerate a stretch, and thus their ROMmax. Stiffness, on the other hand, may be affected by both muscular and non-muscular tissues, although the most important sources of stiffness are yet to be agreed upon. In this narrative review, we define important terms as well as the factors impacting stiffness and ROMmax. We assert that joint stiffness is affected by the extracellular matrix, intramuscular fat and water as well as fascicle rotation, and that these factors also by extension may affect ROMmax. While sarcomere (and fibre) stiffness is largely regulated by the giant protein titin, it plays a lesser role at the whole muscle level. Alternatively, ROMmax can be influenced by our processing of sensory information and the decisions we make (consciously or subconsciously) about our willingness to stretch further. Thus, cognitive and attention processes can influence an individual’s decision to stop a stretch.
Keywords
joint flexibility, range of motion, stiffness, stretch tolerance, biomechanics, muscle physiology
Document Type
Journal Article
Date of Publication
1-1-2026
E-ISSN
11792035
ISSN
01121642
Publication Title
Sports Medicine
Publisher
Springer
School
Centre for Precision Health / School of Medical and Health Sciences
RAS ID
100683
Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Recommended Citation
Lima, C. D., & Blazevich, A. J. (2026). Mechanisms influencing maximum joint range of motion and stiffness: A narrative review. Sports Medicine. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-026-02491-8