Author Identifier (ORCID)
Abstract
Aims: There is growing evidence supporting paternal contributions to child health. Previous findings from the Vitamin D In Pregnancy study suggest that advanced paternal age is associated with a range of poorer bone measures for offspring at age 11 years. Whether these associations are evident when peak bone mass is attained remains unknown. This study aimed to investigate associations between paternal age and offspring bone health and body composition at age 20 years.
Methods: Data from the Raine study, a multigenerational cohort, were used. Among 1183 offspring with total body DXA data (Norland XR-36 densitometer) at the 20-year follow up, 1142 with information on their father's age were included in this analysis. Linear regression and restricted cubic spline models were developed to examine associations of offspring bone and body composition outcomes at 20 years and paternal age during pregnancy (16–20 weeks' gestation).
Results: Fathers' mean age was 31 years (SD 6.6, range 15–58). Restricted cubic spline models adjusted for sex, maternal, paternal and offspring factors revealed complex, nonlinear associations between paternal age and total body bone mineral density (BMD) and content (BMC). Offspring of fathers in the lowest quartile (Q1) of paternal age (median age 25 years) had between 0.018 g/cm2 to 0.023 g/cm2 higher BMD (1.7–2.1%) than those in Q2 (median age 30 years), Q3 (33 years) and Q4 (39 years) and between 61 g and 67 g (2.1–2.3%) higher BMC than those of Q2 and Q3. Paternal age was not significantly associated with offspring total body lean or fat mass in linear regression models.
Conclusions: This study suggests that paternal age in pregnancy is associated with offspring total body bone mass, but not body composition in early adulthood (~20 years). Further confirmatory studies are warranted to better establish the intergenerational effects of paternal age on bone health.
Keywords
body composition, bone health, developmental origins of health and disease, offspring outcomes, paternal age, paternal origins of health and disease
Document Type
Journal Article
Date of Publication
12-1-2026
Article Number
118080
ISSN
87563282
Volume
213
PubMed ID
42697500
Publication Title
Bone
Publisher
Elsevier
School
Nutrition and Health Innovation Research Institute / School of Medical and Health Sciences
Funding Information
The core management of the Raine Study is funded by The University of Western Australia, Curtin University, The Kids Research Institute Australia, Women and Infants Research Foundation, Edith Cowan University, Murdoch University, The University of Notre Dame Australia and the Western Australian Future Health Research and Innovation Fund (Grant ID WACSOSP2023-2024, WACSOSP2025/7). Salary of MS is supported by a project grant from the WA Future Health Research and Innovation Fund. Funding for the DXA scans at the Gen2-20 year follow-up was received from Canadian Institutes of Health Research (Lye et al., MOP-82893), and the vitamin D assays and nutrition data were funded by NHMRC project grant (Oddy et al., ID 1022134).
Funding received from the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC)
1022134
Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Recommended Citation
Percival, M. A., Zhu, K., Walsh, J. P., Sim, M., Anderson, K. B., Pasco, J. A., & Hyde, N. K. (2026). Paternal age and offspring bone health and body composition at 20 years: Findings from the Raine study. Bone, 213, Article 118080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bone.2026.118080